Supervisory Approaches in Education

supervisory programy Approaches in EducationIn this chapter a review of colligate literature on instructional watch and its relationship with superior phylogeny is set asided. The chapter is divided in to four fragmentizes as to modify the referee to follow a logical sequence that includes history of school revue, overview of management approaches, instructors perception of supervisory functioninges, and the relationship between watchfulness and skipper phylogeny.2.1 biography of School SupervisionIn many true countries, such(prenominal) as United Kingdom (UK) and United States, oftentimes more(prenominal) attention has been given over to oversight than school superintendence (Lee, Dig Song, 2008). The Inspectorate of Education had originated from France under Napoleons regimen at the end of the 18th century, and other European counties followed the idea in the 19th century (Grauwe, 2007). For example, in UK, the runner two inspectors of schools were appo inted in 1883 (Shaw, Newton, Aitkin Darnell, 2003) and in the Netherlands it was started in 1801 (Dutch Education Inspectorate, 2008). The circumstances inspector and control be still being applyd in motley actual and create countries , including United Kingdom (UK), United States, European countries and some African countries such as Lesotho, Senegal, Tanzania and Nigeria (Grauwe, 2007).Traditionally, follow-up and surveillance were accustomd as crucial tools to date qualification and account aptitude in the facts of life system. Later adherents of the terminologies of inspection and inspection argon used by different countries in different ways. As unwraplined by Tyagi (2010), inspection is a top-d proclaim approach concentresed on the assessment and paygrade of school changement based in say standards, where as supervision focus on providing guidance, support and constant assessment to teachers for their superior development and returns in their instruc t- education process. Nevertheless, since the accept of teachers for guidance and support rendered from supervisors has increased from era to time, some countries changed the terminology and preferring the term supervisor over that of inspector. correspond to Grawue (2007), some countries have recently developed more specific terminologies Malawi, uses training methods advisor, and Uganda teacher development advisor.The concepts of supervision and inspection have been changed frequently in Ethiopian education system and the primer coat was not imbibely pedagogic (Haileselassie, 2001). In 19 42, educational inspection was practiced for the first time, then it was changed to supervision in the late sixties , again to inspection in mid 1970s and for the fourth time it shifted to supervision in 1994 (Haileselassie,2001). Haileselassie state thatA affair from perhaps political decisions, unitary could not come up with any sound educational and pedagogical rationale to justify the continuous shift made in the evoke. With the name changes made we do not notice any significant changes in either the content or purpose and functions. (Haileselassie, 2001, p. 11-12)From 1994 onwards, supervision has been practiced in Ethiopia decentralized educational management. harmonise to the Education and Training Policy (1994), educational supervision is recognized at the center (Ministry of Education), Regional, Zonal, District (Woreda) and School levels. instructional supervision at school level is practiced by principals, deputy principals, department head, and senior teachers.However, since the Woreda is the lowest administrative level and had a command contact with schools, more practical support and guidance be expect from the assigned supervisors at this level. As it is clearly mentioned by the Educational Management, Schools Organization, Finance, and association Participation Guideline (MoE, 2002), supervisors have the pursuance key responsibilitiesEnsuri ng whether teacher -student relationship is healthy and democratic, teachers are properly executing their tasks, education is based on the bespeaks of students, the relation between schools and community, mobilizing community, ensure the personifyence of help and wish sprit between teachers and students, provide pro support, follow up and training for teachers. (p. 30-32)2.2 Overview of Supervisory ApproachesAccording to Blas and Blas (1998), although many supervisory approaches are cooperative in nature, for bulky time, supervisory of instruction has been viewed exclusively as an inspection issue. Sergiovanni (1992) describe supervision as a ritual they supervisors and teachers record according to well constituted scripts without much consequence (p. 203). This author continued that today, supervision as inspection can be regarded as an artifact of the past, a function that is no longer tenable or prevalent in contemporary education (p. 204). He explained that though functi oned for a considerable span of time, this pillow slip of supervision caused negative stereotypes among teachers, where they viewed as subordinates whose pro per yearance was controlled. Supporting this idea, Anderson and Snyder (1993) give tongue to, because of this, teachers are new to the sort of mutual dialogue for which terms like mentoring, peer learn job collegiate assistance are coming in to use (p.1).It should be clear, however, that traditional supervisory approaches should not be removed completely because supervisory authority and control are natural for original development. Mitchell and Sackney (2000) explained this as much of past practice is educationally sound and should not be cast aside (p. 37). Having said this, it is important to differentiate instructional supervision from evaluation. Authors described the cause as a plastic approach and the later as a summational approach (Poole, 1994 Zepeda, 2007). Poole (1994) stated that instructional supervision is a constructive process that emphasizes collegial examination of teaching and learning (p. 305). In this regard, participants in the supervision process plan and implement a range of skipper increase opportunities designed to meet teachers professional growth and educational goals and objectives at different levels. instructor evaluation, on the other hand, is a summative process that focus on assessing the competence of teachers, which come tos a formal, written appraisal or judgment of an individuals professional competence at specific time (Poole, 1994, p. 305). The supervisory (formative) and critical (summative) processes should go hand in hand (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). While supervision is essential for teachers professional growth, evaluation is essential to determine this growth and teacher effectiveness (Kutsyuruba, 2003 Wareing, 1990).The widely used approaches to evaluation are administrative monitoring, deal constitution, checklists, and self-assessment. On the other hand, approaches to supervision are categorized as clinical supervision, peer coaching, cognitive coaching, mentoring, self- ponderion, professional growth plans, and portfolios (Alfonso Firth, 1990 Clarke, 1995 Poole, 1994 Reninan, 2002 Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007 Zepeda, 2007). Implementing different supervisory approaches is essential not barely to give choices to teachers it is also important to provide choices to the administrators and schools (Kutsyuruba, 2003). each(prenominal) component of supervisory approaches are discussed as follows.Clinical SupervisionAccording to Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), clinical supervision is a face- to- face contract with teachers with the intent of improving instruction and increasing professional growth (p. 23). It is a sequential, cyclic and domineering supervisory process which refers face-to-face fundamental interaction between teachers and supervisors designed to improve the teachers phratryroom instructions (Kutsyu ruba, 2003). The purpose of clinical supervision according to Snow-Gerono (2008) is to provide support to teachers (to assist) and gradually to increase teachers abilities to be self-supervising (p. 1511). Clinical supervision is a specific cycle or pattern of accomplishment ating with teachers (Sergiovanni Starratt, 1993, p. 222). It is a union in inquiry where by the person assuming the role of supervisor functions more as an individual with construe and insight than as an adept who determines what is right and wrong (Harris, 1985). Goldhammer, Anderson and Karjewski (1980) described the structure of clinical supervision that includes pre-observation conference, course of instruction room observation, analysis and strategy, supervision conference, and post-conference analysis. Clinical supervision is officially applicable with in mind antecedent teachers, teachers are experiencing difficulties, and see teachers who are in bring of improving their instructional performan ce.Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that clinical supervision is typically formative than summative in its evaluative approach in order to enable beginning teaches collaborate to research their practices and improve their teaching and learning (p. 233). As a result of this, the writers boost described that the focus of clinical supervision is not on quality control, rather on the professional cash advance of the teacher that guarantees quality of teaching and students performance (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007).Collaborative Supervision collaborationism and collegially are genuinely important in todays modern schools. According to murder and Fessler (1983), teachers are the central focuses of collaborative approach to supervision. Collaborative approaches to supervision are mainly designed to help beginning teachers and those who are new to a school or teaching environment with the appropriate support from more experience colleagues. Thus, these colleagues have an ethical an d professional responsibility of providing the take type of support upon request (Kutsyuruba, 2003). In this regard, a teacher who readfully collegial and collaborative support should realize that postulate do not exist for professional growth, that feedback from colleagues and other sources should be solicited in order to move toward improvement (Burke Fessler, 1983, p.109). The major components of collaborative approaches to supervision which are especially call for for pundit or novice teachers are peer coaching, cognitive coaching and mentoring (Showers Joyce, 1996 Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007 Sullivan Glanz, 2003 Kutsyuruba, 2003). coadjutor coachingPeer coaching, according to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), is be as teachers helping teachers ring on and improve teaching practice and/or implement position teaching skills needed to implement companionship gained done faculty or curriculum development (p. 215). The term coaching is introduced to characterize practice and feedback following supply development sessions. According to Singhal (1996), supervision is more effective if the supervisor follows the team approach. This would mean that the supervisor should have a clear interaction with teachers and group of teachers, provide an open, that supportive atmosphere for efficient communication, and involve them in decision making. The goal of coaching as described by Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007), is to develop communities within which teachers collaborate to honor a very dim-witted value- when we learn together, we learn more, and when we learn more, we will more effectively sue our students (p. 251). Thus, peer coaching provides possible opportunities to beginner teachers to refine teaching skills through collaborative relationships, participatory decision making, and immediate feedback (Bowman McCormick, 2000 Sullivan Glanz, 2000). In this regard, research findings showed that beginning teachers rated experienced teachers who coached than as highly competent and the process itself as very necessary (Kutsyuruba, 2003).Cognitive coachingAccording to Costa and Garmston (1994), cognitive coaching refers to a nonjudgmental process built around a supply conference, observation, and a reflecting conference (p. 2). Cognitive coaching differs from peer coaching in that peer coaching focuses on innovations in curriculum and instructions, where as cognitive coaching is aimed at improving existing practices (Showers Joyce, 1996). As Beach and Reinhartz (2000) described, cognitive coaching pairs teacher with teacher, teacher with supervisor, or supervisor with supervisor, however, when two educators are in similar roles or positions, the process is referred as peer supervision. The writers get on identified ternion components of cognitive coaching planning, lesson observation, and reflection.Costa and Garmston (1994) described three basic purposes of cognitive coaching, namely (1) developing and maintaining trusting relation ship (2) promote growth toward both autonomous and independent behavior and (3) promoting learning. In a cognitive coaching process, teachers learn each other, built mutual trust, and support to reach at a higher level of autonomy- the ability to self-monitor, self-evaluate, and self-analyze (Garmston, Linder Whi usurpr, 1993).MentoringMentoring as defined by Sullivan and Glanz (2000) is a process that facilitates instructional improvement wherein an experienced educator agrees to provide assistance, support, and recommendations to another staff member (p. 213). Mentoring is a form of collaborative (peer) supervision focused on helping new teachers or beginning teachers successfully learn their roles, establish their self images as teachers systema skeletale out the school and its culture, and understand how teaching unfolds in real variant rooms (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Sullivan and Glanz (2000) stated the buy the farms of mentors asThe mentor can work with a novice or less experienced teacher collaboratively, nonjudgmentally perusing and deliberating on ways instruction in the class room whitethorn be improved, or the mentor can share expertise in a specific area with other educators. Mentors are not adjudicate or critics, but facilitators of instructional improvement. All interactions and recommendations between the mentor and staff members are confidential. (p. 213)Research projects and publications revealed that mentoring has clear connections with supervision and professional development which table service to augment the succession planning and professional development of teachers (Reiman Thies-Sprinthall, 1998).In addition, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) described that the furiousness of mentoring on helping new or beginner teachers is typically useful for mentors as well. By helping a colleague (beginner teacher), mentors able to see their problems more clearly and to learn ways to overcome them. As a result, mentoring is the kind o f relationship in which learning benefits everyone involved.Self-ReflectionAs the context of education is ever changing, teachers should have a professional and ethical responsibility to reflect on what is happening in response to changing circumstances. Thus, they can participate in collective reflection practices such as peer coaching, cognitive coaching, or mentoring, as well as self-assessment reflective practices (Kutsyuruba, 2003). According to Glatthorn (1990), self- direct development is a process by which a teacher systematically plans for his or her receive professional growth in teaching. Glatthorn further described that self-directed approaches are virtuallyly ideal for teachers who prefer to work solo or who, because of scheduling or other difficulties, are unable to work cooperatively with other teachers. Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) considered this option to be efficient in use of time, less costly, and less demanding in its reliance on others. Thus, the write rs indicated that in self-directed supervision teachers work alone by assuming responsibility for their own professional development (p. 276).Furthermore, Glatthorn (1990) suggested that self-development is an option provided for teachers that enable them to set their own professional growth goals, find the resources needed to achieve those goals, and undertake the steps needed to accomplish those outcomes (p. 200). In addition, this approach is particularly suited to competent and experienced teachers who are able to manage their time well (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007).PortfoliosAs teachers call for to be actively participated in their own development and supervision, they need to take ownership of the evaluation process (Kutsyuruba, 2003). The best way for teachers to actively involve in such practices is the teaching portfolio (Painter, 2001). A teaching portfolio is defined as a process of supervision with teacher compiled solicitation of artifacts, reproductions, testimonials , and student work that represents the teachers professional growth and abilities (Riggs Sandlin, 2000).A portfolio, according to Zepeda (2007), is an individualized, ongoing record of growth that provides the opportunity for teachers to collect artifacts over an extended period of time (p. 85). Similarly, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that the intent of portfolio development is to establish a file or collection of artifacts, records, photo essays, cassettes, and other materials designed to represent some aspect of the class room program and teaching activities. As Sullivan and Glanz (2000) stated portfolio documents not only innovative and effective practices of teachers, but also it is a central avenue for teachers professional growth through self-reflection, analysis, and sharing with colleagues through discussion and writing (p. 215). The writers further described that portfolio can be used to support and enrich mentoring and coaching relationships. original Growth Pl ansProfessional growth plans are defined as individual goal-setting activities, long term projects teachers develop and carry out relating to the teaching (Brandt, 1996, p. 31). This means that teachers reflect on their instructional and professional goals by setting think outcomes and plans for achieving these goals. In professional growth plans as part of instructional supervisory approach, teachers select the skills they wish to improve, place their plan in writing including the source of knowledge, the type of workshop to be attended, the books and articles to read, and practice activities to be set. In this regard, Fenwick (2001) stated that professional growth plans could produce transformative effects in teaching practice, greater staff collaboration, decreased teacher anxiety, and increased focus and commitment to learning (p. 422).Summative EvaluationThere is a clear link among instructional supervision, professional development and teacher evaluation (Zepeda, 2007). Teach er evaluation involves two distinct components formative evaluation and summative evaluation (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). The writers differentiated formative teacher evaluation as an approach intended to increase the effectiveness of ongoing educational programs and teachers professional growth, where as summative teacher evaluation is designed to judge and rate the quality of ones own teaching and level of professional growth. In this regard, the purposes of instructional supervision are formative- focused on teachers ongoing professional development, and the intents of evaluation are summative- assessment of professional performance which leads to a final judgment (Zepeda, 2007). However, Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) stated that both formative and summative teacher evaluations cannot be separated, for each contains aspects of the other. Summative evaluation, therefore, uses various techniques such as, administrative monitoring, report writing, checklists, and self-assessment tools (Kutsyuruba, 2003).2.3 Teachers Perception of Supervisory ProcessesFrom laypersons conducting school inspection in the 18th century, up to the practice of neo-scientific management, instructional supervision in almost schools of the world has focused on inspection and control of teachers (Alemayehu, 2008). According to Sullivan and Glanz (2000), historically the evaluation function of supervision was rooted in bureaucratic inspectional type supervision (p. 22). The writers further described that teachers view supervision for the interest group of evaluation as often being anything other than up lifting. In a study of supervision and teacher satisfaction, Fraser (1980) stated that the improvement of the teaching learning process was dependent upon teacher attitudes toward supervision (p. 224). The writer observe that unless teachers perceive supervision as a process of promoting professional growth and student learning, the supervisory practice will not bring the want effe ct.Kapfunde (1990) stated that teachers usually associate instructional supervision with appraisal, rating, and controlling them. In Ethiopia, many teachers resent or even fear being oversee because of the history of supervision, which has always been biased towards evaluation or inspection (Haileselassie, 1997). Regarding the challenges of teachers, it is stated in various literatures that beginning teachers face more challenges than more experienced teachers. Teaching has been a career in which the greatest challenge and most difficult responsibilities are faced by those with the least experience (Glickman, Gordon Ross-Gordon, 1998, p. 21). At least 30 percent of beginning teachers leave the profession during the first two years (Casey Mitchell, 1996). For many less experienced teachers, supervision is viewed as a meaningless exercise that has little value than completion of the required evaluation form (Sergiovanni Starratt, 1998). The writers further described that no matter how fit are designated supervisors, as long as supervision is viewed as doing something to teachers and for teachers, its effectiveness to improve schools will not be fully realized (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007, p. 5).Teachers do not perceive supervision as helpful for their teaching and professional growth when its approach is focused on teacher appraisal and efficiency (Acheson Gall, 1992 Zepeda Ponticell, 1998). Various literatures identified supervision to be unfamiliar with most teachers because of its evaluative structure (Acheson Gall, 1992). According to Smyth (1991), the cause for resistance to supervisory practices by most teachers is the hierarchical and explotative form of teacher evaluation introduced by some types of supervision. In line with this, Acheson and Gall (1992) said that the hostility of teachers is not towards supervision but the supervisory styles teachers typically receive. Thus, selecting and applying supervisory models aimed at teachers instruction al improvement and professional growth is imperative to develop a sense of trust, autonomy, and professional learning culture (Hargreaves Fullan, 2000).2.4 Relationship between Instructional Supervision and Professional instructionThe overall purpose of instructional supervision is to help teachers improve, and this improvement could be on what teachers know, the improvement of teaching skills, as well as teachers ability to make more informed professional decisions (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). According to Zepeda (2007), there must(prenominal) be a clear connection of instructional supervision to professional development and teacher evaluation. She added that the various models or approaches of instructional supervision such as clinical supervision, peer coaching, cognitive coaching, mentoring, etc. bridge instructional supervision and professional development.Instructional supervision, with its focus on collegiality and professional improvement, is an important tool in buildi ng an effective teachers professional development. Instructional supervision is an organizational function concerned with teacher growth, leading to improvement in teaching performance and greater student learning (Nolan Hoover, 2008, p. 6). It is clear that continuous improvement in methods and skills is necessary for every professional, and so the professional development of teachers has become highly important (Anderson Snyder, 1998 Carter, 2001 Zepeda, 2007).Professional development is an important part of an ongoing teacher education concerned with improving teachers instructional methods, their classroom management skills, their ability to adapt to instruction to meet students needs, and establishing a professional culture which is important in teaching and learning (Wanzare Da Costa, 2000). Professional development gives emphasis on the development of professional expertise by involving teachers in a problem solving and action research (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). Sulliva n (1997) on the other hand, stated that as fields of educational development, instructional supervision and professional development are interlinked and can and should overlap as needs and local preferences dictate (p. 159). From the supervisors view point, professional development emphasizes providing teachers with the opportunity and resources they need to reflect on their practice and to share their practice with others (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007, p. 216).Instructional supervision and professional development are linked in several ways. As McQuarrie and Wood (1991) noted one connection to be through the use of data obtained from supervisional practices used in planning and implementing staff development as part of instructional improvement and helping teachers improve their skills. The writers further stated that both instructional supervision and professional development (1) focus on teacher effectiveness in class room (2) may be provided by teachers, supervisors, and administ rators (3) are judgment-free practices that improve teachers instructional activities in a collaborative ways and (4) promote in their participants a sense of ownership, commitment, and trust toward instructional improvement.Anything supervisors can perform to help teachers develop and strengthen becomes an investment in promoting professional development (Sergiovanni Starratt, 2007). And thus, professional development allows teachers to make their own decisions regarding their knowledge and skills improvement and to assume personal accountability (Retting, 1999 Kaagan, 2004).Professional development needs of beginner teachers differ from those experienced teachers, and special supervisory approaches should be developed to meet these needs (Kutsyuruba, 2003). According to Glatthorn (1990), beginning teachers are characterized by their preferences for received types of supervisory approaches. Most importantly, they need intensive assistance of clinical supervision. Similarly, they need mentoring, peer coaching, cognitive coaching, and other collegial supervisory approaches. The writer further noted that experienced teachers also have their own special professional development needs and preferences. Most experienced teachers can benefit from collaborative and self-directed supervisional practices which will foster continuous professional growth and development. In general, instructional supervision is an ongoing process which enables teachers the opportunity to develop professionally and different supervisory options should be provided for different teachers based on their experience and level of difficulty.