Evaluating Strengths and Weaknesses of Reason as a Way of Knowing Essay Example for Free

Evaluating Strengths and Weaknesses of Reason as a Way of Knowing Essay This paper that I am writing on is a piece of paper; that is undeniable fact. Hundreds of years of development and definition also back up this statement as do any scientific experiments carried out upon it in an effort to prove that this piece of paper is indeed a piece of paper. Yet through reasoning the fact that this is a piece of paper can be disputed and even proved wrong. Reason seems like an excellent way to work out the world around us. It uses all of the facts available to come up with a suitable hypothesis which can be tested and either proved or disproved through experimentation. This is the foundation of science, which is what the majority of people would trust. So anything proved through scientific means is therefore and irrefutable fact. Of course, in every experiment write up there is an acknowledgement that the data collected might not be completely accurate or that the interpretation of results might be wayward but again this is perfectly reasonable. It is reasonable to assume that despite your best efforts you may have got the answer wrong and another answer, no matter how unlikely, may be correct. As well as reason being proved by scientific experiment it can also be proved by historical fact. For example, it is undisputable fact that on 30th May 1431 Joan of Arc was burned at the stake. That cannot be argued with, it was that date and will always be that date no matter what happens in the future and every history text or website would agree with that fact. So it is therefore illogical to start claiming that Joan of Arc died last week as historical facts, which are perfectly reasonable, tell us otherwise. However, does reason really help us in our quest for knowledge or is it a poor way of finding out about the world? Despite much scientific investigation and historical knowledge there are many questions in the world that are left unanswered and unexplained. These questions are sometimes fundamental to life itself. For example, how are we conscious beings that can interact with the world beyond purely animal instincts? This question could possibly be explained by the electrica l impulses in the brain that form our thoughts but how can we have developed into any kind society purely through electrical impulses? In this case, using reason to explain what is happening almost seems unreasonable as the potential answer seems not to be able to completely cover the question. After all, if it is only electrical impulses, then what need is there for a person to be able to be able to create a symphony with an orchestra? As well as reason not being able to answer some questions there are some problems with following logical arguments. Logical fallacies are the main example of this. This is where through looking at two or more facts a conclusion is drawn which is false. For example: Cake is food, food is tasty, and therefore cake is tasty. However, this is obviously not true as whilst some cake may be tasty, perhaps even the majority; this does not mean to say that all cake is tasty. After all a burnt cake is not that tasty! Also not only is the conclusion false the two facts through which the conclusion is derived can also be said to be false. After all, any cake that I bake should not be classed as food and not all food is tasty. This statement is far too general and is a large problem with logical fallacies as they generally come to a wrong conclusion, both through the ignorance of other factors as well as the fact that often the facts are not completely accurate in the first place. Lateral thinking is also something which at first seems illogical yet (often) in hindsight becomes logical. It is creative thinking which does not merely follow the most logical steps to reach an answer. For example a suggested solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict in the Middle East was to ship vast amounts of Marmite to the area. This seems utterly senseless, as surely holding talks and making agreements between the two sides would be the best steps forward. However, on examining the idea further it becomes logical, if creative! In the typical diet of people in the Middle Eastern area there is a lack of zinc due to the main diet of unleavened bread. This lack of zinc creates aggression. Marmite contains a lot of zinc and therefore could be used to solve the problem in the Middle East. Whilst this solution does not seem reasonable it would work and so shows that reason is not always the best policy. There is also a difference in opinion between what people may think is logical and illogical. Many people in the world take illogical decisions and believe illogical knowledge. Or they seem to do so. Religion is a major factor in many people’s lives and it affects many of the things that they think and do. Due to this people may make a decision that seems illogical to secular people which is perfectly logical to religious people. This brings up the question of; what is reason? After all if two different decisions about the same thing are made and are both reasonable to those people it begs the question of whether or not reason itself can be defined. Is reason just a matter of opinion or is there a yardstick by which all reasonable decisions can be made. If we look back at the British Empire one of the purposes of that was to; â€Å"Make the world England† rather then to respect what other cultures thought and did. In many small islands in the Far East a warrior culture was common and often tribes would fight each other for prestige rather then for anything else. However, to the British this seemed barbaric, yet without it the culture fell apart. For them it was reasonable for this to take place, the knowledge they had seemed to point to the fact that this was a good thing. But not for the British who had a very different opinion through the knowledge that they had acquired. To conclude reason as a way of knowing has both strengths and weaknesses. The weaknesses are that a difference of opinion means that people will reason differently too making it an irregular method of making decisions and acquiring knowledge. Reason may also not be the best policy as more creative solutions may be better which can be derived through latera l thinking. Also logical fallacies call into question the validity of reason as they produce false results through logical steps. As well as this we cannot answer some fundamental questions through reason. However, reason is often the best way that we can make decisions in the world. Scientific experiment and historical knowledge are two very good examples of how reason cannot be changed and is therefore very valuable as it allows us to have consistency with our knowledge. Of course religion means that some inconsistency comes into play with our knowledge but on the whole reason is often the best policy.

Pesticides: Feeding the World Essay -- Farming Food Science Papers

Pesticides: Feeding the World Every day, new worries arise concerning over-population and the future of earth. People are afraid of starvation and endemic diseases. The problem with present food production is not of land shortage, but of yields too low to feed a doubled world population. Plant geneticists are creating hybrid plants that have higher yields and more resistance to unwanted and harmful organisms. Even with the new plants, pesticides must be applied to reap the hybrid's full potential. What follows is some common misconceptions about pesticides and their use. Humans ingest about 10,000 times more naturally occurring pesticides than they do man-made ones. In fact, the risk you expose yourself to by drinking a daily glass of apple juice from fruit treated with the pesticide Alar is 58 times less than the hazard of consuming natural carcinogens in one mushroom. Pesticide residues remain only on the surface of produce. They are not absorbed by fruits or vegetables. Rinsing with clear running water will remove most of any trace residues. Organic food growers often use pesticides derived from natural sources to protect their crops. Many man-made pesticides are less toxic than naturally-occurring ones. Without the availability of crop protection products, it is estimated that current world fruit and vegetable production would decline by as much as 40% and fruit and vegetable prices would increase by up to 70% (Crop Protection Institute, 1997). Even with today's technology , food production would be considerably lower and the number of individuals suffering from malnutrition would be dramatically increased if pesticides were not used. Changes in Farming Farming has changed and advanced incredibly in the last tw... ...Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. (1997). The Pros and Cons of Pesticides [Online]. Available: http://www.ns.ec.gc.ca/epb/factsheets/pesticides/pro_con.html [1997, September 28]. Avery, Dennis T. (1995, June). How Pesticides Help Prevent Cancer. Consumers' Research Magazine, pp. 11-12. Byrd, John D. Jr., Ph.D., David R. Shaw, Eric P. Webster (1997). PesticidesBenefits and Risks [Online]. http://www.ces.msstate.edu/pubs/pub1962.htm [1997, October 7]. Crop Protection Institute. (1997). Facts & History of Pesticides [Online]. http://www.cropro.org/history.html [9/16/97]. Hastings, John. (1993, September). Do Pesticides on Fruits and Vegetables Threaten Children?. Health, p. 12. Riviere, Jim E. (1994, August 8). Stop Worrying and Eat Your Salad. Newsweek, p. 8. Spencer, Leslie. (1993, October 25). Ban All Plants-They Pollute. Forbes, pp. 104-108.

Do Nursing Interventions Have an Impact on Cancer Patients? Essay

Critical Appraisal is a means of which research data is evaluated and examined for the validity and quality of individual studies after the elimination of studies that do not contribute to determining current best evidence (Hamric, Hanson, Tracy, & O’Grady, 2014). This evaluation can be used to eliminate studies that do not meet criteria for meta-analysis. Critical Appraisal is used to help people develop certain skills to make sense of available scientific research evidence based on the validity, results, and relevance. It consist of a systematic process through which the strengths and weaknesses of a research study can be identified (Young ; Solomon, 2009). The basis for my beginning research has been focused around home care patients and since I have a background of working on an oncology floor I have decided to further explore cancer research for homecare patients. This paper is a review of both quantitative and qualitative research completed in the efficacy of treating cancer patients in the home setting. The burning question is â€Å"Do nursing interventions implemented in the home setting improve the quality of life for cancer patients†? Upon completion of this assignment I hope to gain a general understanding of what a critical appraisal is. In addition, a basic knowledge of the difference between a qualitative and a quantitative review will be established. Cancer is a disease caused by the uncontrolled division and growth of abnormal cells in the body. If a cell is cancerous it is referred to as a malignant cell. According to World Health Organization (WHO) Cancer represents 30% of the burden posed by non-communicable diseases in the Region of the Americas (Luciana, Cabanes, Prieto-Lara, ; Gawryszewski, 2013). Research articles presented in the paper assess whether or not interventions implemented within the home or outpatient setting have a positive or negative impact on physical endurance and the quality of life of a cancer patient. Loss of physical function is one of the most distressing symptoms of cancer patients’ leading to additional emotional and psychological breakdown (Lowe, Watanabe, Baracos, ; Courneya, 2013). Purpose The purpose of this paper is to take levels of evidence in a meta-synthesis (qualitative) review as well as a meta-analysis (quantitative) review and critically evaluate the information. The findings for these methods are taken from multiple studies, combined, and analyzed statistically. A meta-synthesis involves integrating qualitative research findings on a specific topic that are themselves interpretive syntheses of narrative information (Polit ; Beck, 2012). Qualitative designs are used best to understand patients’ experiences, attitudes, and beliefs (DiCenso, Guyatt, ; Ciliska, 2005). Meta-analysis is a method of integrating quantitative findings statistically (Polit ; Beck, 2012). Three questions in particular are asked when a quantitative or qualitative study is appraised, they generally are: What are the results? Are the results of the study valid? How can the results be applied in the identified case? Critical Appraisal: Quantitative Study Quantitative studies are used for evaluating the effectiveness and safety of nursing interventions, the accuracy and precision of nursing assessment measures or diagnostic tests, the strength of causal relationships, and the cost-effectiveness of nursing interventions (DiCenso, Guyatt, ; Ciliska, 2005). The selected quantitative article for critical appraisal is titled â€Å"Home-based functional walking program for advanced cancer patients receiving palliative care: a case series†. This article presented a clearly focused research question related to evaluating how physical activity interventions implemented in the home or outpatient setting impact a cancer patients’ quality of life. The purpose of this study was to examine the initial development and pilot testing of a physical activity intervention in patients with advanced stage cancer receiving palliative care (Lowe, Watanabe, Baracos, ; Courneya, 2013). Researchers wanted to see if a home based walking program would help to decrease the rates of declining physical function in advanced stage cancer patients or add to the quality of life for these patients. Methods and Results This research study was conducted using qualifying participants in an outpatient or homecare setting receiving palliative care. This was a trial study in which participants were not randomized. Participants meeting study criteria were identified by researchers and consent to participate in the study was obtained by all participants before trial monitoring began. Inclusion criteria required subjects to be age 18 years or older, english speaking, have the cognitive ability to participate, and to have a diagnosis of progressive, incurable and locally recurrent or metastatic cancer and receiving palliative care. Nine adult cancer patients were chosen for this study all residing either in a palliative home care environment. By the time baseline information was taken three participants dropped out of the program due to hospitalization or feeling overwhelmed, another three left the study due to severe symptoms leaving three remaining participants to complete the program. The sample consisted of two men and one woman with the median age of 55. This physical activity program was monitored over the course of six weeks. A quasi-experimental pilot study design was used to provide preliminary data of the six week physical activity program among advanced stage cancer patients. The quasi-experimental design can be descriptive or correlational and takes place when the researcher actively manipulates the independent variable to see the effect on the dependent variable (Zaccagnini ; White, 2011). The interventions used was a modified home based functional walking program combined with muscle strengthening excercises. Duration and intensity was individually set for each participant based on baseline results of a physical function test. Previous surveys of patients with advanced stage cancer presented findings with a median survival of 104 days. Findings of this quantitative study revealed that post intervention scores showed that all three participants showed worsening symptoms and fatigue scores by the end of the six week home-based walking program. Two of the three participants passed away within 90 days of completing the program. Although study results demonstrated challenges associated with physical activity interventions in advanced stage cancer patients, no definitive proof was uncovered showing improvement in the quality of life for advanced stage cancer patients. Critical Appraisal: Qualitative Study Quanlitative study designs are well-suited for helping to understand the illness experience (DiCenso, Guyatt, ; Ciliska, 2005). The selected qualitative study article for critical appraisal was titled â€Å"Early support visits by district nurses to cancer patients at home: A multi-perspective qualitative study†, posed a clearly focused research question. Multi-perspective study can be defined as combining multiple viewpoints, representations and roles. Many palliative care patients spend most of their final days at home with caregivers and some support healthcare staff. It is said that nurses make frequent support visits to patients, yet there is still very little known about what is actually provided by visiting nurses to homecare palliative patients and their caregivers. The purpose of this qualitative study was to address limitations of previous studies of reported practice by taking a multi-perspective approach, along with views of nurses, patients, and caregivers and directly observing and reporting findings (Griffiths, Ewing, ; Rogers, 2012). Participants were studied in focus groups. This study was developed to help present findings that explored how district nurses early support visits to advanced stage cancer patients is both described and carried out. Previous studies identified have been limited to the reports of practice by nurses. With this study researchers were able to observe interactions between nurse, patient, and caregivers during home visits in order to record findings. This observation by researchers was then used to identify how home visits were conducted and what they entailed. Methods and Results This research study was completed using a focus group design method. The study sample included a total of 77 participants, 10 palliative care patients (seven women, three men), nine caregivers (five spouses, four daughters), and 58 nurses. Of these 58 nurses 28 were leaders and 30 were staff nurses. The age range of the 10 patients was 53-85 with a median age of 72. All of the patients had a diagnosis of various advanced staged cancer. Data was collected by experienced qualitative researchers that worked as community nurses. The setting for this study took place in the North West (urban), and South East (rural) regions of England. Prior to data collection ethical approval was granted and participants provided written consent. Each focus group session lasted from 60-90 minutes. Researchers began recruitment by making observations of visits, with each patient receiving two observation visits. Patients and caregivers were interviewed both before and after observations in order to retrieve needed background information for research. Upon collection and analysis of data audio recordings were used during home visits. Findings revealed that the nurses that participated in this study showed great value for palliative care. There were four types of visits described: assessment of physical care needs, assessment and delivery of practical help, and two cross cuttig themes of information giving and enabling talk. Detailed observations of these visits with interviews were presented from the nurses in the assessment of physical care needs and while nurses reported carrying out early support visits there was difficulty in articulating the content covered in these visist. In the assessment and delivery of practical help it was noted by nurses that physical needs dominated visits but this was mostly a review of what patients needed as far as equipment, etc. Research findings show that this particular study can be applied to patient care by educating support staff that early support visits could potentially play a part in reducing costly hospital admissions. Patients also reported a decrease in stress levels with support from visiting nurses. Overall this multi-perspective approach provided new insights about support visits by district nurses. Conclusion Qualitative and quantitative research methods make different contributions to knowledge (DiCenso, Guyatt, ; Ciliska, 2005). Critical appraisal is an essential part of evidenced-based research and its methods help to form a portion of the systematic review process. It is the analysis of findings that allows the reader to form an opinion about the validity and reliability that such research can be used in patient practice. This process enables the reader to assess the study’s usefulness and whether or not the findings are trustworthy (Young ; Solomon, 2009). Teamwork is an essential part to providing palliative home care and nurse play a vital role (Griffiths, Ewing, ; Rogers, 2012). Although earlier studies have found that physical activity interventions in early stage cancer patients present positive results, that has not been confirmed in patients with advanced stage cancer and further research will be required. Overall I found that the results presented in the quantitative study were not valid due to lack of identifiable evidence shown. While reviewing the qualitative study I found  that the sample size was not large enough to provide a definitive answer as to whether this study provided valid results. When referring to the burning question I think that it has been shown that to a certain point nursing interventions implemented in the home such as adding physical activity and nursing support visits to cancer patients’ agenda can positively affect the patient’s quality of life. When searching for effective interventions researchers must always remember to incorporate patient preferences in their studies because this will help to enhance both recruitment and adherence.

Faith Integration Neuroscience and Religion - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 845 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2019/03/11 Category Religion Essay Level High school Tags: Science vs Religion Essay Did you like this example? Faith Integration: Neuroscience and Religion The intersection between neuroscience and religion is a controversial topic because of the abstract ideas associated with religion and the absolute scientific nature of neuroscience. The aim of this paper is to look at the shared aspects between neuroscience and religion and looking at biblical justice issues from the lens of religion. The main focus of this paper is to show that neuroscience and religion intersect more than they differ. How Neuroscience and Religion Relate The study neuroscience and its intersection with religion is a rather new research topic and most articles argue that neuroscience is important in the understand of religious ideologies. Klemm (2017) argues that there is intersection between neuroscience and religion and if it is approached properly they can empower the understanding of each other. He found that incorporating religion in the teaching of neuroscience had a positive impact in learning and understanding the material. Sayadmansour (2014) found that â€Å"The brain, especially the right hemisphere, has the ability to perceive holistic concepts such that we perceive and understand wholeness in things rather than particular details† (para. 6). The right hemisphere is important because religion is abstract concept that can only be understood holistically. The source also looks at the mathematical concrete function of the left hemisphere and argues that this is why specific numbers are used throughout the religious tex ts. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Faith Integration Neuroscience and Religion" essay for you Create order The use of both hemispheres while engaging in learning has been shown to support Klemm’s findings. Klemm (2017) also argues that neuroscience and religion are related because they both share themes such as the: desire to help others, know and value the nature of creation and life, respect for the body and brain, learn and grow in understanding of ourselves and others, know the basis for human agency and self-control, overcome personal weakness and limitations, minimise mental anguish, despair, and depression, nurture the self and others, promote mental calm, rest, and rejuvenation, prevent and cure maladaptive ideas and compulsions, heal broken minds and spirit, live healthy, actualised, and happy lives† (p. 7). The ideologically intersection is also demonstrated in the work done by Oomen (2003). Oomen used the ideology of determinism and free will, in regards to religion, to demonstrate a parallel to neuroscience. The parallel for neuroscience was identified as the science self-organizing systems when compared to neural networks. These broad ideological parallels seemed to come from a religious and theological understanding and then applying that to neuroscience. Whereas other views come from a scientific view on neuroscience and relating it to religion. Comings (2010) found that religious understanding and interpretation is processed through the temporal lobes. This idea is supported by Schjoedt (2009) which used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during different types of prayer formal (common prayers used during a church service) and personalized prayer (private). The study’s findings support Comings idea for the localization of neural activity within the temporal lobes. Using this data of localization Comings (2010) used SPECT imaging of schizophrenics with religious delusions and found increased activity of the left temporal lobe and decreased activity of the left occipital lobe (p. 482). The source further examined temporal lobe epilepsy and found that this had an impact on a person religiosity. Applying this information to biblical figures Comings (2010) highlighted a study by Altschuler (2002). Where he proposed Ezeki el possessed some of the characteristics of the 4-H syndrome placing him as the oldest known case of TLE dating to approximately 2,600 years ago† (p.482). Additionally, Comings (2010) highlighted a study done by Persinger (2002) that found that if electrical current is added to the right temporal lobe the patient would report that they could feel the spirit. (p.484) Biblical Justice/ Religious Implications Using biblical teachings as a societal guide when it come to neuroscience questions are raised such as in the following scenario: What if a mentally ill patient needs treatment, but does not have insurance, should the exams be performed regardless of the ability to pay? This is a question that could have multiple answers depending on the viewpoint. The biblical answer would be yes because those who have the ability to help should help for the greater good. Looking at this situation from the viewpoint of the organization that can treat the patient they have a lot invested in it such as equipment and staff, and they cannot operate for free. So a solution would be for those in that persons community to step up and help. Another way to look at this scenario from a biblical justice standpoint is that those who have the ability to treat and care for others in this case the hospital should offer the services based on a percentage of what the patients can pay. The only way this option would be possible is if those who sold the technology and/or the schools educated the people staff operated at the same discount based on the amount the organization or people could pay. In other words the entire society would have to operate according to an altruistic principal. Where everyone only takes what they need and leaves any extra for those who do not have enough.